Printed Circuit Boards - What are They and How are They Used?
Printed circuit boards are the basis for many types of electronic and computer components and devices. PCB's for short, printed circuit boards are typically composed of anywhere between 1 to 2 dozen conductive layers. Each layer is separated by a substrate, or an insulating layer, and then laminated together to form a printed circuit board. Conductive layers are usually made of copper. Drilled holes are included on the boards, which are called "vias". These "vias" are electroplated or riveted to make the connection electrical.Manufacturing Of Printed Circuit BoardsTo manufacture printed circuit boards, they start with a substrate and then lay a copper layer over it. Then they "etch" the layer to remove the copper that is not needed, leaving the proper amount of copper area needed for the application. Then the appropriate amount of vias, or holes, are drilled into the layers with either a tungsten carbide drill or a laser, depending on the size of the vias needed. Any areas of the board where components will be placed are plated. Then any texts are printed on the board with a screen printing process. The boards are then ready for testing. After the board is tested, the board is ready for components for the desired application to be attached, this process is called "populating".History Of Printed Circuit BoardsThe inventor of printed circuit boards was an Austrian engineer named Paul Eisler. He made the first printed circuit board as part of a radio in the year 1936. A graduate of Vienna University in 1930, Eisler developed the radio while living in Hempstead, England. During World War II, Eisler was interned in England for being an illegal alien. When he was released in 1941, he sought out investors for his printed circuits invention. The Camberwell lithography company became interested and offered Eisler a contract, which he did not read before signing. The contract gave the rights to his idea away to the company. After this, he was still able to get a patent for a printed circuit for many other applications in 1943. His invention was finally noticed by the US military, which integrated the technology into bomb detonators to counter German advancements in the field. When the war ended, the US government allowed access to the technology for commercial use.Uses and ApplicationsWhen prin

Starting a New Business: Do's and Don'ts to Assure Your Success
Let's start with the good news. You've no doubt heard the statistics: that 9 out of 10 new businesses fail. Well, it turns out that census data show that about 65% of new businesses were still in operation after 4 years. As we dig a little bit deeper, though, the news is more sobering for solo entrepreneurs: Successful businesses tended to be employer firms rather than solo enterprises. And several studies don't even take into account sole proprietorships. A look at the factors contributing to success or failure in these studies, though, can still offer valuable lessons to those determined to succeed.Here are a few do's and don'ts:Do your homework before opening your new business. The most common reason for failure cited in recent studies was "outside business conditions" having to do with increased costs (such as rent and insurance)and new competition. You should study the existing and potential competition and factor in increases in fixed costs as you determine whether you have the capital you need to get started. If you're already in business, you can still do this research and incorporate the results into your planning. Go to the library and read up the specific costs and hazards associated with your industry. Get training or work in a successful business that is already doing what you plan to do so you can see from the inside how common problems are resolved and success is achieved.Do eliminate or reduce existing debt as much as possible and clean up your credit reports before you open your doors for business. A 1998 study showed that difficulties obtaining financing and excessive debt were the second leading cause of business failures. Businesses started with at least $50,000 in capital had the best chance of success. This doesn't have to be your own personal capital, of course; but if you don't have it, you need to be in a position to borrow it, and that's difficult to do if you already have high levels of debt when you get started. Before applying for funding, be sure to get your credit reports, which you can do easily and cheaply at MyFico.com. The site has terrific tools you can use to get errors corrected. If your credit is poor, there are services, such as those offered through Eventis that will help you repair it (see our website).Direct reports—people who need direction and leadership—rely on their leaders to give them feedback and mentoring, not just management and evaluations. However, these people who most need their boss’s help frequently lack the guidance that would enable them move to the next levels of success—theirs, their team’s and the company’s. Too often leaders are not prepared or trained to conduct an appraisal that stretches performance and ensures their direct reports’ development. Instead, the appraisals become confrontational and judgmental; goals are not clear; neither person is prepared; and the discussion occurs when it’s too late to do anything about the problem. Today’s organizations demand more from their leaders. Therefore, a well thought out performance appraisal system, clear expectations, reviews that inspire, and action plans are critical to the individual’s and organization’s success.

Create the System

The advantages of an effective performance appraisal system are many: better performance, improved relationships, coordination of personal goals and business objectives, identification of high potential individuals, and justification for monetary rewards. However, much depends on the efforts that go into crafting the system.

The first step is to have clearly defined job descriptions that specify the tasks, functions, and responsibilities of each job. What does it take to do this job right? What are the success indicators? What are the derailers? Answers to these questions form the foundation for deciding behavior-based competencies for the particular job, the area of the organization, or the company as a whole.

Many organizations start by defining roles and responsibilities as they relate to the level the person holds in the organization: executive, manager, or employee. Other companies choose competencies that address certain areas of the organization, such as accounting, manufacturing, human resources, or sales. Once decision makers decide how to measure performance, they are ready to identify specific behaviors that demonstrate competency in relevant areas and to choose the scale that makes sense for them.

Usually competencies relate to one of four areas: ability to get results, capacity to form relationships, decision making, and leadership. Specifically defined competencies might also include business acumen, customer focus, coaching, integrity, vision, communication, teamwork, flexibility, technical skills, and innovation. Once the company decides on 8-10 competencies, the next step is to establish the rating scale.

The most basic scale is three points: exceeds expectations, meets expectations, or fails to meet expectations. However, a four-point scale gives more options for evaluation and forces the evaluator to avoid a middle of the road review.

Once the criteria for evaluation have been determined, the decision makers need to set the timeline. In short, the year begins with goal setting, continues with ongoing feedback, and concludes with the end of the year evaluation that is often tied to raises and bonuses. This sort of schedule avoids surprises and the “once a year” mentality that dooms most performance appraisal systems. Also, the periodic reviews give the employee a chance to take corrective action when there are still opportunities to make a difference.

In general, four meetings per year work well. The first is a goal setting meeting; the second addressees progress on the goals; the third surfaces any problems that might interfere with the end of the year appraisal; and the final one is a formality that ties the progress to rewards. This does not imply that ongoing feedback should not take place between meetings. On the contrary, the four meeting format is the minimum number of meetings the boss should have with the direct report. Even though bosses often resist adding to the number of formal meetings per year, they soon learn that the increase in productivity and morale among their direct reports more than compensates for the extra time they commit to the process.

Clarify Expectations

The purpose of goal setting is to tie individual performance to the organization’s mission, vision, and values and to link short-term objectives to long-term targets. People are most committed to goals they’ve helped construct. When the boss and the direct report work together to clarify these goals, the direct report is more likely to commit to rather than comply with the efforts that will drive success. Well written goals serve a variety of purposes: they create o

m

The advantages of an effective performance appraisal system are many: better performance, improved relationships, coordination of personal goals and business objectives, identification of high potential individuals, and justification for monetary rewards. However, much depends on the efforts that go into crafting the system.

The first step is to have clearly defined job descriptions that specify the tasks, functions, and responsibilities of each job. What does it take to do this job right? What are the success indicators? What are the derailers? Answers to these questions form the foundation for deciding behavior-based competencies for the particular job, the area of the organization, or the company as a whole.

Many organizations start by defining roles and responsibilities as they relate to the level the person holds in the organization: executive, manager, or employee. Other companies choose competencies that address certain areas of the organization, such as accounting, manufacturing, human resources, or sales. Once decision makers decide how to measure performance, they are ready to identify specific behaviors that demonstrate competency in relevant areas and to choose the scale that makes sense for them.

Usually competencies relate to one of four areas: ability to get results, capacity to form relationships, decision making, and leadership. Specifically defined competencies might also include business acumen, customer focus, coaching, integrity, vision, communication, teamwork, flexibility, technical skills, and innovation. Once the company decides on 8-10 competencies, the next step is to establish the rating scale.

The most basic scale is three points: exceeds expectations, meets expectations, or fails to meet expectations. However, a four-point scale gives more options for evaluation and forces the evaluator to avoid a middle of the road review.

Once the criteria for evaluation have been determined, the decision makers need to set the timeline. In short, the year begins with goal setting, continues with ongoing feedback, and concludes with the end of the year evaluation that is often tied to raises and bonuses. This sort of schedule avoids surprises and the “once a year” mentality that dooms most performance appraisal systems. Also, the periodic reviews give the employee a chance to take corrective action when there are still opportunities to make a difference.

In general, four meetings per year work well. The first is a goal setting meeting; the second addressees progress on the goals; the third surfaces any problems that might interfere with the end of the year appraisal; and the final one is a formality that ties the progress to rewards. This does not imply that ongoing feedback should not take place between meetings. On the contrary, the four meeting format is the minimum number of meetings the boss should have with the direct report. Even though bosses often resist adding to the number of formal meetings per year, they soon learn that the increase in productivity and morale among their direct reports more than compensates for the extra time they commit to the process.

Clarify Expectations

The purpose of goal setting is to tie individual performance to the organization’s mission, vision, and values and to link short-term objectives to long-term targets. People are most committed to goals they’ve helped construct. When the boss and the direct report work together to clarify these goals, the direct report is more likely to commit to rather than comply with the efforts that will drive success. Well written goals serve a variety of purposes: they create o

choose competencies that address certain areas of the organization, such as accounting, manufacturing, human resources, or sales. Once decision makers decide how to measure performance, they are ready to identify specific behaviors that demonstrate competency in relevant areas and to choose the scale that makes sense for them.

Usually competencies relate to one of four areas: ability to get results, capacity to form relationships, decision making, and leadership. Specifically defined competencies might also include business acumen, customer focus, coaching, integrity, vision, communication, teamwork, flexibility, technical skills, and innovation. Once the company decides on 8-10 competencies, the next step is to establish the rating scale.

The most basic scale is three points: exceeds expectations, meets expectations, or fails to meet expectations. However, a four-point scale gives more options for evaluation and forces the evaluator to avoid a middle of the road review.

Once the criteria for evaluation have been determined, the decision makers need to set the timeline. In short, the year begins with goal setting, continues with ongoing feedback, and concludes with the end of the year evaluation that is often tied to raises and bonuses. This sort of schedule avoids surprises and the “once a year” mentality that dooms most performance appraisal systems. Also, the periodic reviews give the employee a chance to take corrective action when there are still opportunities to make a difference.

In general, four meetings per year work well. The first is a goal setting meeting; the second addressees progress on the goals; the third surfaces any problems that might interfere with the end of the year appraisal; and the final one is a formality that ties the progress to rewards. This does not imply that ongoing feedback should not take place between meetings. On the contrary, the four meeting format is the minimum number of meetings the boss should have with the direct report. Even though bosses often resist adding to the number of formal meetings per year, they soon learn that the increase in productivity and morale among their direct reports more than compensates for the extra time they commit to the process.

Clarify Expectations

The purpose of goal setting is to tie individual performance to the organization’s mission, vision, and values and to link short-term objectives to long-term targets. People are most committed to goals they’ve helped construct. When the boss and the direct report work together to clarify these goals, the direct report is more likely to commit to rather than comply with the efforts that will drive success. Well written goals serve a variety of purposes: they create o

r evaluation and forces the evaluator to avoid a middle of the road review.

Once the criteria for evaluation have been determined, the decision makers need to set the timeline. In short, the year begins with goal setting, continues with ongoing feedback, and concludes with the end of the year evaluation that is often tied to raises and bonuses. This sort of schedule avoids surprises and the “once a year” mentality that dooms most performance appraisal systems. Also, the periodic reviews give the employee a chance to take corrective action when there are still opportunities to make a difference.

In general, four meetings per year work well. The first is a goal setting meeting; the second addressees progress on the goals; the third surfaces any problems that might interfere with the end of the year appraisal; and the final one is a formality that ties the progress to rewards. This does not imply that ongoing feedback should not take place between meetings. On the contrary, the four meeting format is the minimum number of meetings the boss should have with the direct report. Even though bosses often resist adding to the number of formal meetings per year, they soon learn that the increase in productivity and morale among their direct reports more than compensates for the extra time they commit to the process.

Clarify Expectations

The purpose of goal setting is to tie individual performance to the organization’s mission, vision, and values and to link short-term objectives to long-term targets. People are most committed to goals they’ve helped construct. When the boss and the direct report work together to clarify these goals, the direct report is more likely to commit to rather than comply with the efforts that will drive success. Well written goals serve a variety of purposes: they create o

t ongoing feedback should not take place between meetings. On the contrary, the four meeting format is the minimum number of meetings the boss should have with the direct report. Even though bosses often resist adding to the number of formal meetings per year, they soon learn that the increase in productivity and morale among their direct reports more than compensates for the extra time they commit to the process.

Clarify Expectations

The purpose of goal setting is to tie individual performance to the organization’s mission, vision, and values and to link short-term objectives to long-term targets. People are most committed to goals they’ve helped construct. When the boss and the direct report work together to clarify these goals, the direct report is more likely to commit to rather than comply with the efforts that will drive success. Well written goals serve a variety of purposes: they create opportunities for objective, fair dialogue; they define the “score card” that will be used to determine rewards; they energize and motivate; and they focus efforts.

By now almost everyone has learned about SMART goals, objectives that are specific, measurable, attainable, relevant, and timely. Specific and measurable mean the goal is concrete, clear, and descriptive to the point that results can be measured. For instance, giving feedback that a direct report “needs to be more positive and have a better attitude” is not helpful. Identifying the particular improved behaviors is: greeting others, smiling, saying “thank you,” and giving praise.

“Attainable” is often a source of disagreement between the appraiser and employee. The boss’s perception of results that are achievable and realistic might differ from those of the direct report. Here are some questions for the boss to consider:

· What are others in this role accomplishing?

· What is the person’s history?

· Does this person have the experience, knowledge and capability to do this?

· What evidence is there to come to this conclusion?

Relevant goals are also critical, but both bosses and direct reports continue to make some fundamental errors in this area. First, all goals are not created equal; they need to be prioritized. People are often motivated to work on things they like, things that are familiar, or things that are easy. But frequently these initiatives are not the most critical. Therefore, the boss needs to be sure that the “timely” elements of effectiveness are considered: First things are done first; deadlines are met; and direct reports separate important from unimportant uses of their time.

Second, the people involved fail to define the parameters in which the goals will occur, so the boss has one set of expectations and the employee another. If a condition of goal attainment is “with no overtime” or “with our current equipment,” these limiting conditions need to be spelled out so no one is surprised. If there are disagreements about these conditions or if the direct report considers the conditions unrealistic, the goal setting meeting, not the end of the year review, is the time to surface those issues. One way to do this during the goal setting meeting is for the boss to ask, “What factors might interfere with your achieving this goals?” This question alone can help to put things on the table and resolve differences.

A third mistake is direct reports often don’t understand their parameters for accountability and decision making. They either overstep when boundaries are not clear, or they err on the side of caution and risk-avoidance. Working together, the boss and direct report need to clarify which decisions the employee will make alone, which ones will require notification of the boss, and which ones need to be cleared with the boss. When the direct report is either not making decisions or is running to the boss with every problem, both parties are wasting time and efforts, and the boss is overlooking chances to develop talents and potential among his or her reports.

Finally, bosses frequently do no support the efforts of their direct reports. The research suggests, and multi-rater feedback reports confirm, that mentoring, giving feedback, and developing others are usually the boss’s lowest ratings, primarily because “getting the job done” is more important.

The fact that bosses overlook is that developing others is “the job,” a significant and critical part of the job. Usually coaching others is only one part of a boss’s job, so taking care of other responsibilities often takes precedence.